Self and Unit Evaluation; Unit Two

REGARDING YOUR OWN PERFORMANCE
1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?

I am most proud of the images submitted with the unit lab project, my personal investment in a blood pressure monitor, and the inclusion of the Tim Russert correlation with my compendium. I enjoyed this unit, with its real-life application (s).

2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?

In the unit lab I had a hard time (again) with several of the images. I can not figure out how to have the graphed images appear larger when they're clicked upon. I didn't want to spend much more time with the technology as it seems frivolous and just frustrates me. (Perhaps I should take my metabolic measurements using that as an activity?!) Also, sometimes I have difficulty putting things in my own words. When phrases are written out in the text describing the function or one thing or another I tend to think the author did a good enough job and just want to copy and paste everything instead of rewording it.

3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit? I believe I should get an A on this unit.

4. How could I perform better in the next unit? Next unit I'd like to spend more time completing the chapters, web activities, etc. before submitting work. I find that I like to feel accomplished so I go through the assignments in the most random order to get things off the checklist. I have a good understanding when I'm through with everything, but logically would be benefited by slowing down. (I'm not traveling over the next couple of weeks so this will be much easier).


REGARDING THE UNIT (adapted from Stephen Brookfield, University of St. Thomas "Critical Incident Questionnaire")
At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?

I felt most engaged during the unit lab. I had a friend with me so that contributed. I found that later in the day she and I would do something or encounter someone and be like, "I wonder what THAT would do to your blood pressure?!" I found the activity to be engaging in the moment of the lab, but continuously engaging as well.

At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course?

I felt really distanced from the course towards the beginning of last week. I traveled from AZ to New Mexico, Texas, Maryland, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey to catch up with some friends and family. My computer wasn't always cooperative so I found myself coveting internet time to finish everything.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing?

I wasn't puzzled or confused by anything in this unit. (Or at least not an action that was taken by anyone).

What about this unit surprised you the most? I was surprised by how relevant the unit was. A lot of the information was repetitive from past classes, general knowledge, etc, but I learned useful things that I plan to incorporate into my daily life, including the use of a blood pressure monitor. I was surprised how "into" this unit I was.

Unit Two Lab Project: Exercise Physiology

Muscles under physical activity are the biggest users of oxygen. The body needs oxygen for ceullar respiration to occur. During exercise more muscles are needed so the heart is forced to pump faster. The pulse is the measurement of how fast the heart is pumping. The blood pressure measures the force of blood against the vessel wall. Systolic pressure is the highest point--blood is being forced out by the contraction of the heart muscle. Diastolic pressure is the lowest point--between heart beats when the heart is inactive. (reference: Topic One Powerpoint).

I found this lab to be entertaining. I had planned to go hiking with a friend this week and brought a blood pressure monitor along the trek. Image one and two show me taking my blood pressure and pulse. The remaining images show the three activities I chose to monitor: walking, yoga, and eating.

The purpose of the exercise physiology lab was to calculate three average metabolic measures: pulse, respiration rate, and blood pressure. I first found the average metabolic measures at rest (baseline activity). I then took part in several activities to monitor the effect each had on the measurements.

Prior to each activity I formed a hypothesis regarding the effect the activity would have on the three metabolic measures. I thought that walking would increase my pulse and respiration rate, while decreasing my blood pressure. I proposed that yoga would decrease all of the metabolic measures. Lastly, I presumed that eating would not effect my pulse or respiration rate, but may increase my blood pressure.

The following chart shows the measured results. Each activity was done in a three part series, shown by the different colored markers. The average measure for each activity is then printed in red ink.

Below are bar graphs that compare and contrast each measurement.

The above data shows, that for the most part, my original hypothese were correct. Walking increased my pulse and respiration rate. Walking also increased my blood pressure. Yoga did indeed decrease all of the metabolic measurements. Lastly, eating had very little effect on any of the measurements. My pulse increased slightly immediately following food intake, but the other measurements remained as steady as during baseline activity.

I didn't have any problems with the measurements. I had a manual blood pressure monitor of my own so that allowed an ease in completing the assignment and taking measurements immediately following each activity. Most activities seem to effect metabolic rate to some degree. Naturally, the more intsense an activity, the more dramatic of an effect it has on the metabolic measurements. The more strenuous an activity, the more oxygen the body needs.

Unit Two Ethical Issues Essay

For a ten month period I lived on a small island in the South Pacific. During that time I gardened and ate an organic diet. I participated in many community meal gatherings and found myself entirely satisfied with life. I attribute much of this to my nourishing lifestyle habits. It is tradition in the South Pacific to share meals with neighbors, passing full plates back and forth between homes and families. If you are presented a plate of food, after its consumption, you hold onto the plate. Whenever the mood strikes you, you return the plate to its owner--full. This tradition (never ending!) leaves one feeling both physically and emotionally fulfilled.

Those in support of the "Slow Food Movement" further encourage this sense of a food community. The process of slowing down and making homemade meals is equal parts spiritually and nutritionally satisfying. Aside from food preparation, food selection could be slowed down as well. Taking time to garden and cultivate ones own ingredients is incredibly rewarding--even therapeutic. Slowing down to hand-squeeze orange juice or hand-squeeze milk from coconuts is commonplace in areas less developed than the United States.

The author of the "Unhappy Meals" article seems to agree with this concept, saying once food was all that you could eat. Now you can choose from many foodlike substances. The consumption of whole foods versus processed foods is very much recommended. This can be achieved through gardening, or through being conscious when grocery shopping. Many foods that are advertised as health foods are truly unhealthy. Shopping at a farmer's market and buying fresh organic products is a good way to ensure that your groceries are nourishing.

Buying local food is a widely popular concept. This supports local economies. Also, it contributes to product freshness. There are several organizations creating programs where a local school garden is used for the cafeteria meals. Again, this is the norm for many developing areas, particularly in the South Pacific. Adopting lifestyle changes in shopping and cooking habits could certainly contribute to a more physically and emotionally satisfying sense of nourishment for Americans.

Compendium Four (Part Two, Unit Two)

Major Topic Two: Nutrition

Chapter Eight

Glucose and Diffusion--diabetes (Powerpoint Presentation)

Digestion(pages 144-150)

Nutrition and Diet (page 166)

Food (Powerpoint Presentation)

Glucose and Diffusion

Glucose and diffusion deliver nutrients to cells. Glucose is the main chemical burned or combined with oxygen in cellular respiration.

We all need energy to function. We get this energy from the foods we eat. The most efficient way for cells to harvest energy stored in food is through cellular respiration, a pathway for the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP, a high energy molecule, is expended by working cells. Cellular respiration has three main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and electron transport.

Glycolysis literally means "splitting sugars." Glucose, a six carbon sugar, is split into two molecules of a three carbon sugar. In the process, two molecules of ATP and two "high energy" electron carrying molecules are produced. Glycolysis can occur with or without oxygen. In the presence of oxygen, glycolysis is the first stage of cellular respiration. Without oxygen, glycolysis allows cells to make small amounts of ATP. This process is called fermentation.

The Citric Acid Cycle The Citric Acid Cycle or Krebs Cycle begins after the two molecules of the three carbon sugar produced in glycolysis are converted to a slightly different compound (acetyl CoA). Through a series of intermediate steps, several compounds capable of storing "high energy" electrons are produced along with two ATP molecules. These compounds, known as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), are reduced in the process. These reduced forms carry the "high energy" electrons to the next stage. The Citric Acid Cycle occurs only when oxygen is present but it doesn't use oxygen directly. (http://biology.about.com/library/weekly/aa090601a.htm).

Glucose diffuses through a special protein pore on the cell membrane. Insulin is a protein that is secreted by the pancreas into the bloodstream (normally post-meal). Insulin stimulates cells to use glucose in cellular metabolism or to store it in the liver and muscle.

Type I diabetes occurs when no insulin is produced by the pancreas.

Type II diabetes is directly associated with obesity. The cells become resistant to insulin and can't use glucose.

This image shows the regulation of glucose. The image can be found at the following site, which also includes extensive information relating to Type I and Type II diabetes: http://www.scienceinschool.org/2006/issue1/diabetes/

http://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/ This is a great site put together by the Center for Disease Control. It has patient resources, and also resources for healthcare professionals.

Digestion

The organs of the digestive system are located in the GI tract. Digestion requires ingestion, digestion, movement, absorption, and elimination. All parts of the GI tract have four layers: mucosa, submucosa, muscularis and serosa.

This image shows the process of digestion.

(http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/~lauramay/Digestion/digestion%20with%20insets.jpg)

Digestion begins in the mouth. The teeth, saliva, and tongue are each part of the process. The espophogus moves food to the stomach.

The stomach expands to store food. It also mixes food with acidic gastric juices. (The juice is made up of pepsin--an enzyme that digests protein).

The small intestine receives bile from the liver and pancreatic juice from the pancreas. Intestinal enzymes complete the cycle of chemical digestion.

Accesory Organs The accessory organs send secretions to the duodenum (first 25 cm of small intestine).

A. The Pancreas produces pancreatic juice with digestive enzymes for carbohydrates, protein, and fat

B. The Liver produces bile, destroys old blood cells, detoxifies blood, stores iron, makes plasma proteins, stores glucose (as glycogen), breaks down glycogen to glucose, produces urea and helps regulate blood cholesterol levels.

C. The Gallbladder stores bile which is produced by the liver.

The Large Intestine is made up of the cecum, the colon, and rectum. The large intestine absorbs water, salts, and some vitamins; forms the feces; and carries out defecation.

Disorders of the large intestine: diverticulosis, irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, polyps, and cancer.

Nutrition and Diet

Nutrients released by the digestive process should provide us with plenty of energy, essential amino acids and fatty acids, and all necessary vitamins and minerals. Obesity is increasing rapidly, likely as a result of people's poor eating habits. Obesity is associated with diabetes type two and cardiovascular disease.

The food guide pyramid to the left shows foods to minimize and foods to emphasize for balanced health.

(http://www.ohsu.edu/healthyaging/caregiving/images/food_pyramid.gif)

-Proteins supply essential amino acids

-Carbohydrates are necessary, but simple sugars and refined starches cause a rapid release of insulin that can lead to diabetes type two

-Unsaturated fatty acids (omega three in particular) are protective against cardiovascular disease

-Saturated fatty acids lead to plaque (blocking of blood vessels)

Food

The United States has lost much of the cultural and spiritual base to its diet. This has resulted in a dramatic increase in obesity and a decline in overall long term health. The manufacturing process of foods also threatens the farming and agricultural ecosystems.

A large amount of packaged food is sold in the United States each day. To the left is an aerial shot of a typical supermarket. (www.wikipedia.com).

According to this site; http://www.acc.org/advocacy/advoc_issues/summary_obesity.htm, nearly 1,200 deaths each day are attributed to poor lifestyle habits such as nutrition.

Food Nutrition Lab: Nutrition Calculator

This screen shows a nutritional summary of the food that I have eaten today. (Disclaimer: I'm visiting my mother and am indulging in whatever I'd like for the week!).










How healthy a daily diet do you think this is? Why?

I think as a daily diet this diet is ridiculous and unhealthy. While the calorie content is low, the fat content is quite high. Roughly 1500 calories were consumed for the day. Of those calories, 470 (52 g) of those were fat. The amount of saturated fat (22 g) consumed was higher than it should be for an average day. The sodium consumption was high also.

What would you change about this day's eating, if anything? I would have a bit of self control! I'd include more greens in the day's diet--perhaps replace the ice cream sundae with a salad. Also, I'd drink water instead of tea and lemonade. I generally feel parched if I drink liquids other than water through the day. I would consume more calories, but less fat so I would be more satisfied at the end of the day.

Do you find this kind of nutritional tracking helpful? Why or why not? I do find this kind of tracking helpful. I tend to overeat, so tracking everything for the day helps me stay accountable and see that the small handfuls of junk here and there really add up each day. I find it beneficial to know where I'm lacking in vitamins, proteins, fibers, etc. I haven't used this system on a regular basis, but think if I started it would be helpful in balancing my eating habits.

Compendium Three (Unit Two, Part One)

(Chapters 5,6,7)

Cardiovascular System (pages 86-102)

Blood, Cellular Respiration, and Oxygen

(Powerpoint, pages 105-118, Sickle Cell Anemia Case Study site)

Immunity and Microbes (pages 121-140)

AIDS(http://www.biology.arizona.edu/immunology/tutorials/AIDS/main.html)

____________________________________________________________________

Cardiovascular System and Blood

The cardiovascular system includes the heart and blood vessels. The heart pumps blood and blood vessels move blood to and from the capillaries. The cappillaries are where the exchange of nutrients for waste takes place with tissue cells. Blood is refreshed at the lungs , where gas exchange occurs, at the digestive tract, where nutrients enter the blood, and the kidney, where wastes are removed from the blood. (page 102)

A. Blood Vessels

1. Arteries (and arterioles)

a. take blood away from the heart

b. have thick walls to withstand blood pressure

2. Capillaries

3. Veins (and venules)

a. take blood to the heart

b. relatively weak walls with valves to keep blood flowing in one direction

The heart has a right and left side--each containing an atrium and ventricle. The right side pumps blood through the lungs. It also receives blood from all veins in the body. While blood circulates through the left side of the body, the left side delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissue through the arteries and picks up carbon dioxide through the veins. Valves keep the blood flow in the correct direction. (http://www.learnaboutbypass.com/hrtchmbrs.gif)

B. Features of the Cardiovascular System

1. Pulse-pulse rate indicates the heartbeat rate

2. Blood Pressure- moves blood in arteries (the beating of the heart = flow of blood)

3. Capillary Blood Flow- slow to aid in exchange of nutrients and wastes in the tissues

4. Venous Blood Flow- returns blood to the heart (caused by skeletal muscle contraction, valves, and respiratory movements)

C. Cardiovascular Circuits

1. Pulmonary- blood travels to and from lungs (exchange of gases)

2. Systemic - aorta divides into blood vessels that serve body's organs and cells (exchange with tissue fluid)

Both systems are shown in the diagram to the left. Also, more extensive information regarding each can be viewed at the following website: Pulmonary and Systemic Circulation

Cappilary exchange is explained in detail in the next YouTube video series.

Video One Video Two Video Three

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in Western countries.

Hypertension and atheroscelerosis can lead to stroke, heart attack, or aneurysm.

Following a healthy diet, exercising, and not smoking help prevent cardiovascular disease.

Atheroscelerosis is an accumulation of soft masses of fatty materials (including cholesterol) beneath the inner linings of arteries. These deposits are called plaque.

Recently, Tim Russet from NBC's Meet the Press died from ruptured cholesterol plaque.

Blood, Cellular Respiration, and Oxygen

Cells need oxygen for cellular respiration to occur. Cellular respiration breaks down glucose to create ATPs for use during cell metabolic reactions. A detailed explanation of the process can be found at the following site: http://biology.clc.uc.edu/Courses/bio104/cellresp.htm
Be sure to check out the song at the top of the page!

Blood

Functions help maintain homeostasis
1. transports hormones, oxygen, nutrients to cells
2. transports carbon dioxide and other wastes from cells
3. fights infections and has various regulatory duties
4. maintains blood pressure
5. regulates body temperature
6. keeps pH of body fluids within normal limits

Components
A. Formed Elements

1. Red Blood Cells (transport of oxygen)

2. White Blood Cells (defense against disease)

3. Platelets (blood clotting)

When an injury causes a blood vessel wall to break, platelets are activated. They change shape from round to spiny, stick to the broken vessel wall and each other, and begin to plug the break. They also interact with other blood proteins to form fibrin. Fibrin strands form a net that entraps more platelets and blood cells, producing a clot that plugs the break. (web source)

B. Plasma
1. 91% of plasma is water
2. plasma proteins are mostly produced by the liver
3. plasma proteins maintain osmotic pressure, regulate pH, and transport molecules

Determining blood type is necessary for transfusions so agglutination (or clumping) of red blood cells does not happen.

Sickle Cell Anemia

Sickled cells lead to the malfunction of several systems (liver, lungs, kidneys), and usually result in early death. Other symptoms of sickle cell anemia include shortness of breath and poor tissue development. Normal red blood cells have a concave shape on both sides, along with high oxygen concentration. A sickled cell has low oxygen conentration and changes shape into what is refered to as sickled. The image below shows normal red blood cells to the left, and a sickled cell to the right. The bizarre shape of sickled cells prevents blood from delivering the necessary oxygen and nutrients.

(http://www.nslc.wustl.edu/sicklecell/part1/background.html)









Hemoglobin is responsible for transporting oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body. If this transport does not occur, as in the case of sickle cell anemia, the consequence is carbon dioxide and waste build-up.






Immunity and Microbes



Microbes include bacteria and viruses. These perform services of value, but also cause disease. Bacteria cause disease by multiplying in hosts and producing toxins. Viruses take over the host in order to reproduce and can cause new diseases in the process that the human body has a hard time fighting.





Immunity is the ability to fight diseases and cancer and includes lines of defense. There are two types of defenses; nonspecific and specific.





A. Nonspecific Defenses





1. Barriers to Entry


a. skin and mucous membranes
b. chemical bacterias (lysozyme in perspiration, syliva, and tears, also stomach acid)
c. resident bacteria (normal flora)





2. Inflammatory Reaction (involves phagoctyic, neutrophils and macrophages)





3. Protective Proteins





B. Specific Defenses





1. B Cells and Antibody-Mediated Immunity



a. produced and matured in bone marrow
b. directly recognize antigen (molecules that are foreign to the body) and undergo clonal selection
c. Clonal expansion results in antibody-secreting plasma cells and memory B cells





2. T Cells and Cell-Mediated Immunity





a. Cell-mediated immunity against virus-infected cells and cancer cells
b. produced in bone marrow, mature in thymus (gland underneath top of breastbone)
c. secrete cytokines (chemicals that enhance response of all types of immune cells) for control





Aquired Immunity


1. Long lived/active immunity can be induced by vaccines


2. Short lived/passive immunity is needed when a person is dealing with infectious disease





AIDS (Aquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)





AIDS is caused by HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus). The condition reduces the function of the immune system and leaves people unable to fight off infections or tumors. Treatment can slow down the disease, but at this point there is no known cure for AIDS. Medicine is not always available in highly affected areas, such as Africa, where HIV is suspect to have originated.


















< This world map shows the amount of people living with AIDS per country as of 2008. (source: wikipedia.com)


Being HIV-positive, or having HIV disease, is not the same as having AIDS. Many people are HIV-positive but don't get sick for many years. As HIV disease continues, it slowly wears down the immune system. Viruses, parasites, fungi and bacteria that usually don't cause any problems can make you very sick if your immune system is damaged. (http://www.aids.org/factSheets/101-what-is-aids.html)

This website contains detailed information and links to numerous fact sheets with statistics on AIDS.

Unit Two; Blood Pressure Lab

State a problem about the relationship of age and gender to blood pressure.

Generally, blood pressure rises as age increases. Lifestyle choices such as smoking, drinking, and lack of exercise result in increased blood pressure. As people age their behaviors often include these lifestyle choices, and it is prolonged exposure to to unhealthy habits that affect blood pressure. Males tend to develop high blood pressure earlier in life than women. There is an interesting article here regarding research between the incidences of high blood pressure between the two genders:

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/05/070502111521.htm

Use your knowledge about the heart and the circulatory system to make a hypothesis about how the average blood pressure for a group of people would be affected by manipulating the age and gender of the group members.

The average blood pressure of the group would increase, as the age group increases in years, and vice versa. (The average blood pressure of the group would decrease, as the age group decreases in years). Also, the male subjects will have earlier onset high blood pressure.

How will you use the investigation screen to test your hypothesis? What steps will you follow? What data will you record?

I will focus on the individuals with obvious hypertension. I will review their medical history in comparison with those that show similar results, and also with those that show no obvious hypertension. I will record the similarities in the lifestyle choices and demographics for each individual experiencing hypertension.

Analyze the result of your experiment. Explain any patterns you observed.

The experiment showed that age and body weight contribute greatly to the blood pressure of an individual. Persons that were obese and in an older age demographic had greater instances of hypertension. Hypertension occurred earlier in males than in females. Hypertension seemed to be greater influenced by behavior/lifestyle choices than family history.

This table shows the average blood pressure for males and females participating in the study for various age demographics.

This graph presents the information from the table above.

Did the result of your experiment support your hypothesis? Why or why not? Based on your experiment what conclusion can you draw about the relationship of age and gender to group blood pressure averages?

Yes, the results of the experiment supported my hypothesis. The average blood pressure of the group increased as the average age of the group increased. Also, hypertension was earlier onset in the male gender. I was surprised that there were an equal number of men and women (six out of 50) in each group that showed hypertension. From this experiment, hypertension is equally prevalent in males and females.

During the course of your experiment, did you obtain any blood pressure reading that were outside of the normal range for the group being tested? What did you notice on the medical charts for these individuals that might explain their high reading?

There were twelve total high blood pressure readings that were outside the normal range for the test groups. Most of these individuals had a combination of the following in common: a past family history of hypertension, a high salt diet, alcoholic consumption, and lack of exercise. Obesity alone resulted in hypertension in several cases.

List risk factors associated with the hypertension. Based on your observation, which risk factor do you think is most closely associated with hypertension?

Some risk factors associated with hypertension are age, race, gender, heredity, obesity, alcoholic consumption, diabetes, and inactive lifestyle. From this particular study, obesity is most closely associated with hypertension.

What effect might obesity have on blood pressure? Does obesity alone cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure? What other factors, in combination with obesity, might increase a person's risk for high blood pressure?

Obesity changes the structure and function of the heart. (http://www.fairview.org/healthlibrary/content/ca_fatheart_car.htm) Obese people often have high blood pressure because their heart is working harder. Obesity alone does cause a person to be at risk for high blood pressure. There are however, other factors that increase a person’s risk for high blood pressure. These are listed in the previous question. Also, studies have shown that females taking oral contraceptives are at risk for high blood pressure.

Self and Unit Evaluation

REGARDING YOUR OWN PERFORMANCE
1. What were the three aspects of the assignments I've submitted that I am most proud of?

I am most proud of the outside research I did online and included with my assignments, the amount of time I spent actually engaged in the course material through the labs, and lastly, the degree of completion I acheived with each assignment. (I've been traveling through three states over the past week so that hasn't been easy!)

2. What two aspects of my submitted assignments do I believe could have used some improvement?

I would have liked to have the assignments seem more cohesive. There were some images I had found online that would have been a great addition to a few sections, but the uploading placed them sporadically with the text and I just eliminated some of them for this reason. That could use some work.

Also, I'm not sure what motivated me to take the quiz for section one before completing the compendium review. I didn't do bad at all, but would have done better if I'd finished the material I was being tested on before jumping into the quiz. (I was more logical in the second part of the unit and my quiz grade reflected this).

3. What do I believe my overall grade should be for this unit? I feel that I should get an A for this unit.

4. How could I perform better in the next unit? In the next unit I will allow myself more time to spread out the coursework. I will likely perform better because the assignments won't be an overwhelming whole, but each a smaller task.


REGARDING THE UNIT (adapted from Stephen Brookfield, University of St. Thomas "Critical Incident Questionnaire")
At what moment during this unit did you feel most engaged with the course?

I felt most engaged during the labs. I am more of a hands-on learner. I remember much more detail when I act on something, rather than just reading about it.

At what moment unit did you feel most distanced from the course? I felt most distanced from the course about midweek. I had put a few assignments off until the last minute and think I was just overwhelmed with the amount of work I had to complete. I had an aversion to finishing--it seemed that everything online (checking e-mail, chatting with friends, etc.) was a neverending distraction to my completing the coursework.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit that find most affirming and helpful?
I was frustrated with uploading images and contacted Dr. Frolich about this. He told me to just move on and not worry about the technology, rather the information. That helped me to focus.

What action that anyone (teacher or student) took during this unit did you find most puzzling or confusing? During this unit I did not find myself puzzled or confused by anyone but myself!

What about this unit surprised you the most? (This could be something about your own reactions to the course, something that someone did, or anything else that occurs to you.) I was surprised by the nature of the final lab assingment. I had assumed that taking an online class would consist of all word processing type documents.

Unit 1 Lab Project: Build a Cell

This model of a cell was made using playdough and several toothpicks.

The parts of the cell are labeled on the chart above. To begin, the cell membrane is the outermost surface that controls what comes into and out of the cell. The nucleus is the sphere that holds the DNA. The nuclear membrane/envelope protects the nucleus. The Endoplasmic Reticulum is both rough and smooth. Rough ER is "studded" with ribosomes. Smooth ER does not have ribosomes and synthesizes lipid molecules. The golgi apparatus processes, packages, and secretes modified cell products. Lysosomes are vesicles that digest macromolecules and cell parts. A vesicle is a membrane-bounded sac that stores and transports substances. Mitochondria are organelles that carry out ceullular respiration, producing ATP molecules. Flagella and cillia have an inside core of microtubles and aid in human reproduction.

(Cell Structure and Function, page 45)

The next model shows the replication of DNA.

The nuclei of two newly formed daughter cells have the same number and kinds of cell that divides (the parent cell) in mitosis. After DNA replication each chromosome has been duplicated. As the centromeres (microtuble organizing centers of each cell) split, the chromosomes move into daughter nuclei.

Lastly, I've chosen to make a model of gene expression that shows transcription and translation. Gene expression usuallly leads to the forming of a protein. Transcription takes place in the nucleus. Here, the DNA triplet is passed to an mRNA. The mRNA has codons. Translation occurs in the cytoplasm at the ribosomes. tRNA moclecules bind to their amino acids and mRNA codons pair with their anticodons.

This model is a simplified model of a very complex cell's structure and function. The tactile nature of this lab helped me to not only have a better understanding, but a better memory of what I had learned in the unit.

Genetics Compendium

Chapters 18, 19, 20, 21

Cell Division- Mitosis (pages 379-391)

Early Fetal Development (page 436, powerpoint slides 44-48)

Role of Genes/Chromosomes in Inheritance (pages 392-397)

Roles of DNA/Genes in Controlling Cell Metabolism (pages 444-447, 452 )

Recombinant DNA Technology (Genetic Engineering) (pages 454-463)

Cellular Basis for Cancers (pages 404-412, powerpoint slides 28-36)

Cell Division/Mitosis

After interphase (where the organelles carry on normal functions) the cell enters the stages of the cell cycle. These are mitosis and cytokinesis. The right workings of the cell cycle and mitosis are crucial to the growth and repair of tissue.

The phases of mitosis are Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.

http://kvhs.nbed.nb.ca/gallant/biology/mitosis_phases.jpgallant/biology/mitosis_phases.jpg

1. Prophase- chromosomes attach to spindle fibers

2. Metaphase- chromosomes align at the equator

3. Anaphase- chromatids separate into chromosomes that move toward the poles

4. Telophase-nuclear envelopes form around chromosomes and cytokinesis begins (cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasm and organelles after mitosis).

The major differences between mitosis and meiosis are discussed in the following article.

http://www.sparknotes.com/biology/cellreproduction/intro/section2.rhtml

Early Fetal Development

Meiosis produces eggs and sperm with just one member of a chromosome pair. Fertilization occurs with the uniting of both gametes. A new being is then produced.

This image shows the process of meiosis. http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/thenewgenetics/images/ch1_meiosis.jpg

Meiosis begins fetal development.

Role of Genes/Chromosomes in Inheritance

Meiosis is a part of the development of the sperm and the egg and contributes to genetic diversity. Changes in the chromosome number in the sex cells results in trisomy (one type of chromosome is present in three copies) or monosomy (one type of chromosome is present in a single copy). The syndromes associated with this include trisomy and Down syndrome.

Sex cells that have too few or too many X or Y chromosomes result in Turner, Klinefelter, poly-X, and Jacobs Syndromes.

Chromosomes with deleted, duplicated, inverted, or translocated segments caused by chromosomal mutations result in deletion, Alagille, and certain cancers.

The following site discusses chromosome and gene mutations.

http://www.biology-online.org/2/7_mutations.htm

Roles of DNA/Genes in Controlling Cell Metabolism

The nucleus determines the order of amino acids in proteins. (The nucleus is where the DNA is). The proteins control the metabolism of a cell. Chromosomes are formed in the nucleus when cells are dividing. At this time the DNA replicates itself so that the newly created cell is the same as the old cell.

Gene expression is the process that leads to the forming of a protein or another product. The steps required for gene expression are transcription and translation. Transcription takes place in the nucleus and translation occurs in the cytoplasm at the ribosomes.

http://stemcells.nih.gov/StaticResources/info/scireport/images/figurea6.jpg

Recombinant DNA and Technology

Recombinant DNA contains DNA from two or more different sources. For the most part this involves putting a gene from one organism into the genome of another organism.

Bacteria, plants, and animals have all been genetically engineered. Frost resistant strawberries are being developed. Corn, potato, soybean, and cotton plants have been engineered to be resistant to pesticides and herbicides. Mice are being tested through the injection of alleles for human disease. (The mice are then given medications and are studied to see the result of these medications).

This thinkquest site has several links to resources related to genetic engineering.

This diagram shows how genetic engineering produces insulin.

The gene the genetic engineers want to produce insuling may be in a human chromosome.

They use an enzyme to cut the insulin gene out of the chromosome.
Plasmids are then removed from bacterial cells
The plasmids are cut open with an enzyme
A human insulin gene is inserted into each plasmid
The genetic engineers encourage the bacteria to accept the genetically modified plasmids
Bacteria with the insulin gene are then multiplied
Each bacterium will produce a tiny volume of insulin
By culturing the genetically engineered bacteria limitless supplies of insulin may be produced.

Genetic engineering can be used to create other substances such as penicilin or vaccines.

http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/education/bitesize/standard/img/biology/genetic-eng.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/education/bitesize/standard/biology/biotechnology/reprogramming_microbes_rev2.shtml&h=400&w=300&sz=28&hl=en&start=1&sig2=vkdX5ZfnD69h3g_pzLygcA&tbnid=fmHf-GmEAy7KMM:&tbnh=124&tbnw=93&ei=EF5RSMvEOZfiigH6iqW3DQ&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dgenetic%2Bengineering%26gbv%3D2%26hl%3Den%26sa%3DG

Cellular Basis for Cancers

Characteristics Common to all Cancer Cells

1. lack differentation and do not function

2. enter the cell cycle an unlimited number of times

3. form tumors and do not need growth factors to signal them to divide

4. gradually become abnormal

5. blood vessels grow to support them (angiogenesis)

6. can spread through the entire body (metastasis)

Cancer can be caused by genetics and also environmental carcinogens such as radiation, tabacco smoke, and viruses.

Cells Compendium

Unit One; Chapters 1,2,3,4

Characteristics of Life (pages 2-5)
Molecules of Life (pages 27-36)
Cell Structure and Function (pages 42-53)
Mitochondria and Metabolism (pages 52-55)
Tissue Types (pages 62-69)

Characteristics of Life
All living things share the same characteristics of life. They are biologically organized as follows:

(Levels of Biological Organization; http://www.ux1.eiu.edu/~cfruf/images/bio3002/els_le2.jpg)

Atoms join together to create molecules. These molecules then form to make a cell.

Cells are the smallest working unit of a living thing, and therefore the basis of life. Organisms must also rely on an outside source for energy. Food provides energy to maintain cells. Reproducing is another characteristic of life. Cells come only from preexisting cells, therefore, all living things have parents. All organisms undergo development and growth. (An increase in size often means an increase in the number of cells present). Development takes place during all stages of life; from birth to death. Organisms are homeostatic--that is, the organ systems maintain a regulated environment in the body.

Living things all respond to a stimuli--moving toward or away an object. Horses for instance, are prey animals and are generally "hand shy" if they haven't been handled much. A horses response when approached by a human (the stimuli) is then to move out of reach of the human. On the contrary, if a human is approaching a horse with a handful of hay (the stimuli), the response of the horse may be entirely different. The actions of a domesticated horse versus a wild horse represent an adaptation to a change in environment. This is an example of evolution--a process in which a species changes over time. Observations of horses in the wild show that if a member of the herd is feeling sick or fevered it will seek out plants that contain alleviating ingredients. A domestic horse would not have this natural instinct. (source; Andrea Baldwin, Director of Connections Equine Therapy)

In short, all organisms

1. have levels of organization

2. use materials as energy from the environment

3. reproduce

4. grow and develop

5. are homeostatic

6. respond to stimuli

7. evolve

Molecules of Life

There are four categories of organic molecules (those containing hydrogen and carbon) that are unique to cells. These are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

1. Carbohydrates -made of simple sugars for energy storage

(broken down to simple sugar to fuel cellular metabolism in mitochondria).

Simple sugars lead to serious health problems: obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, immune system dysfunction.

2. Proteins -made with amino acid subunits to speed chemical reactions or account for cell movement

3. Lipids- made of fatty acids for cell membrane function or long term energy storage

4. DNA/RNA Nucleic acids- made of bases or nucleotides for storing and using genetic information, duplicates to pass on information, transcription to mRNA to be translated in a protein’s amino acid chain

Cell Structure and Function

There are two types of cells: Prokaryotic and eukaryotic.

A plant cell is prokayotic. (http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/cells/procaryotes/images/procaryote.jpg)

An animal cell is eukaryotic. (http://www.columbia.edu/cu/biology/courses/c2005/purves6/figure04-07a.jpg)

The following link http://www.essortment.com/all/prokaryoteseuka_rgbo.htm has an excellent article on the differences between the two cell types.

The human cell is surrounded by a plasma membrane and has a nucleus in the center.

Between the two is the cytoplasm which contains organelles with specific functions.

1. Plasma Membrane- regulates the passage of ions and molecules into and out of the cell

a. passive mechanisms (no energy required) -diffusion (osmosis), facilitated transport
b. active mechanisms (energy required) -active transport, endocytosis, exocytosis

2. Nucleus- (houses DNA), specifies the order of amino acids in proteins
a. chromatin condenses to become chromosomes during cell division
b. the nucleolus produces RNA

c. protein synthesis occurs in ribosomes (small organelles composed of protein and rRNA)

3. Endomembrane System
a. Nuclear Envelope-separates nucleus from cytoplasm
b. Endoplasmic Reticulum-protein and lipid synthesis
c. Golgi Apparatus-processes and packages proteins and lipids into other parts of the cell
d. Lysosomes-specialized vesicles produced by Golgi apparatus to digest enclosed material or authodigest old cell parts

4. Cytoskeleton- microtubules, actin/intermediate filaments give cells shape and allow organelles to move about cell

5. Mitochondria- cellular respiration and metabolism

http://peer.tamu.edu/curriculum_modules/Cell_Biology/module_1/Organnelle%20summary.jpg

Mitochondria and Metabolism

Mitochondria are involved in cellular respiration, which uses oxygen and dispels carbon dioxide. During cellular respiration mitochondria process the energy of glucose into the energy of ATP molecules. A "metabolic pathway" is a chain of chain of reactions, each of which has its own enzyme. Enzymes speed up reactions by creating an enzyme-substrate complex. Cellular respiration is a breakdown (enzymatic) of glucose to carbon dioxide and water.

Cellular Respiration:

1. glycolyosis; occurs in the cytoplasm and is anaerobic

2. citric acid cycle; releases carbon dioxide

3. electron transport chain; passes electrons to oxygen

Tissue Types http://fig.cox.miami.edu/~cmallery/150/physiol/sf38x5.jpg

(this is a great graphic, but I had a hard time formatting it to the blog).

1. Connective Tissue Connects and Supports

a. loose fibrous connective tissue

b. dense fibrous connective tissue (tendons and ligaments)

c. cartilage and bone

d. blood and lymph

2. Muscular Tissue Moves the Body

a. skeletal and cardiac muscle are striated (striped)

b. cardiac and smooth muscle are involuntary

c. skeletal muscle is found in muscles attached to the bones

d. smooth muscle is found in internal organs

e. cardiac muscle makes up the heart

3. Nervous Tissue Communicates

a. composed of neurons and several types of neurolgia (

b. each neuron has dendrites, a cell body, and an axon to conduct nerve impulses

4. Epithelial Tissue Protects

a. squamous-flattened cells

b. cuboidal-cube shaped cells

c. columnar-resembles rectangular pillars or columns

Sunday, June 8, 2008

Genetics Lab Write-Up

Genes are inherited to determine how an organism will look, develop, and function. A genetic cross occurs when two individuals produce an offspring that carries part of the genetic makeup of each parent. Genes that are passed on from parent to child determine the traits that are the basis for evolution. Evolution takes place when traits become less common or more frequent in a population. Genes are quite significant in inheritance because they determine the transmission of conditions or diseases from generation to generation.

These two labs outlined genetic inheritance through the illustration of the effects of dominant and recessive genes. A phenotype is the actual physical appearance of an adult/organism. It is the resultant of the dominant genes in ones genetic makeup. (This can be influenced by the environment as well. For instance, the development of a suntan may result in the change of ones phenotype--the appearance of their skin coloring).

A genotype is not visible through physical appearance, but is an internal component, rather. The genotype is comprised of two alleles.

Alleles are represented in a Punnett Square and can be either dominant or recessive.
Dominant refers to the gene that is represented in the phenotype--that is, the trait that is evident in physical appearance. If a phenotype has two types of alleles the allele that is not physically apparent is known as recessive.



























In the above Punnett Square scenario a genetic cross was made between two heterozygous long winged adult flies. The genotype of both adult flies is Ll. The phenotype is long winged. The alleles for the parents are L and l. L is the dominant gene, and is evident by the long winged appearance of the flies, while l is recessive.



The following image shows the genetic makeup of two dragons. There are several phenotypes and genotypes shown for the pair. The blue coloring and presence of horns both illustrate a phenotype. The genotype for horns in the scenario is Hh. H is dominant, while h is recessive. Had the alleles both been h no horns would be present.



















I found the following website to be of interest;



http://www.uvm.edu/~cgep/Education/Inheritance2.html

(The site outlines inheritance patterns regarding conditions and diseases passed from parents to offspring).

Understanding genetic inheritance is vital to understanding evolution. As such, genetic manipulation in today’s society is viewed as manipulating evolution. Good, bad, or indifferent regarding the issue, these labs left me with that to consider. With the click of a mouse I could change the characteristics of a dragon and be instantly gratified in the resulting phenotype. The origins of the basis of genetic manipulation and the significance of genes in evolution are much more clear to me after having completed these activities.

Saturday, June 7, 2008

Genetic Engineering: Blog Essay on Ethical Issue

GM: Genetically Modified or Genetically Mishandled?

Is it safe to eat GM foods? That may depend upon your interpretation of the abbreviation: genetically modified or genetically mishandled. Beginning in the 1990’s this question has been an ongoing point of contention amongst farmers, environmentalists, scientists, government officials, and everyday consumers. The main concerns regarding Genetically Modified foods in each of these demographics are human safety and environmental conservation. Ethically speaking, a sense of food security in poverty stricken regions is also a huge concern.

Developments in the genetic modification of food sustenance have and could continue to lead to an increase in agricultural goods and productivity. In areas of great social need, such as Africa, Genetically Modified foods may be viewed as a hope to an unanswered food crisis. Biotechnology has allowed for a greater production of food staples--using the same amount of land and water to support the increase in food production.

Further development has enabled a gene transfer of sorts between organisms. This can be especially beneficial for farmers looking to save time and money in their annual crop. It has been made possible to produce crops that contain varying DNA characteristics for favorable modifications-- a crop bearing an inclusive insecticide for instance. This is certainly an alluring modification any busy farmer may support.

These farmers, along with some scientists and government officials feel that there are no immediate food or safety issues regarding Genetically Modified foods, as not much has been held against the newly developing practices and procedures. On the contrary, many biotechnology critics and scientists disagree with the afore, feeling that there is not adequate testing or regulation in place to know whether or not the present practices of gene manipulation are safe. The government does not have a regulated labeling system in place for Genetically Modified food products. This allows for a certain degree of unaccountability to the public--both nationally and internationally.

Environmentalists have expressed that Genetically Modified foods are endangering humans as well as their environment. The uncontrolled experiment of sorts could certainly lead to the destruction of delicate ecosystems and wildlife.

At present, regardless of their stance on genetic modification, farmers, scientists, environmentalists, government officials, and everyday consumers would likely agree: GM could certainly be interpreted as Genetically Mishandled. Despite the potential benefits biotechnology has to offer, the consequences may outweigh the instant gratification/convenience factor. In the future, the government could pursue the testing and regulation of Genetically Modified foods, both nationally and internationally, before inadvertantly allowing something potentially helpful to become potentially harmful to both human and environmental safety.

Microscope Lab

Disclaimer: This is just being posted as is.
I couldn't get the image sizes corrected,
nor could I get them to line up with the text.

The picture captions should be as follows:

Image One; Onion Root Tip 40X
Image Two; Cheek Smear 40X
Image Three; Cheek Smear 4X

Lab Write-Up; How to Use a Microscope

The use of a microscope enables us to understand how cells function. As early as 1595 the first microscopes were being produced. In 1660 significant improvements were made upon the original instrument. At this time microscopes were used to prove theories such as blood circulation and to research plant life. Microscopes have enabled realizations that could not have been made relying solely on the human eye. The microscope is a tremendous aid in researching human biology.

The following is a slide of a cheek smear being viewed at 40X. (Image One should be here).

Human cheek cells are fairly large and are an easy-to-obtain example of animal cells. (tweed.olemiss.edu/nmgk12/curriculum/elementary/fourth/microscopeandcells.doc).



The controls of a microscope can be adjusted accurately when looking both at and through the microscope.

It is best to adjust the stage and objectives when looking at the microscope.

The focus, iris, and oculars should all be adjusted when looking through the microscope.

The coarse focus knob moves the stage fast, while the fine focus knob moves more slowly. The coarse focus knob should be used to elevate the stage to the highest position possible, while first looking at the microscope. The fine focus knob can be used when looking through the viewfinder in order to sharpen the image of the specimen.

The iris controls the amount of light that can enter through to the slide. In order to brighten the image the iris should be opened. In order to darken the image, the iris should be more closed.

The oculars can be set evenly to begin and can then be fit to the face by moving in and out. The eyes of the viewer should be kept about three quarters of an inch away from the oculars. The oculars magnify the image for the viewer.

Lastly, the objectives determine the magnification of a specimen and the resolution at which the detail of the object can be seen. A smaller objective will result in a smaller amount of detail, as shown below. Compare this view of a cheek smear at 4X to the first cheek smear, viewed at 40X. The objectives are changed simply by rotating the dial.

Cheek smear viewed at 4X: (Image Three should be here).





Cheek smear viewed at 40X (Image Two should be here).

Several Nobel Prizes have been awarded to those who have used the microscope for the purpose of studying human biology.


Robert Koch used an ordinary microscope to discover the bacilli that caused tuberculosis and cholera, two of the most deadly diseases of his time. He lay the cornerstone to modern bacteriology.
Robert Koch, Nobel Prize in Medicine, 1905


Sakmann and Neher made epoch-making investigations of living cells. They studied the function of nerve cells and expanded our knowledge of their function.
Bert Sakmann and Erwin Neher, Nobel Prize in Medicine, 1991

These scientists studied the fruit fly (Drosophila) and expanded the knowledge of how an egg cell grows to become a complete organism. That is vital information in understanding the development of all living species.
Edward B. Lewis, Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard and Eric Wieschaus, Nobel Prize in Medicine, 1995

An excellent article regarding the microscope, and the aforementioned Nobel Prize winners and their contributions to human biology can be found at the following site:

http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/physics/microscopes/discoveries/index.html

This site emphasizes the value the microscope has had on society, and suggests its prospective aid in the continuing research of human biology.

Friday, June 6, 2008

Registration Posting

Hey, I'm Stephanie. Many of my friends and family have taken to calling me by my first and middle name; Stephanie Rose. I was somewhat of a rambunctious child so my full name was used on a regular basis. I've calmed down a bit, but my "you're in trouble" name has stuck.

My favorite artist is Ani DiFranco. musically, poetically, and graphically.

I'm taking this class because I'd like to persue a career in nursing.

During this class I hope to gain a better understanding of the human body.

1. I have been a Peace Corps Volunteer in the South Pacific.

2. I just hiked the Camino de Santiago through Northern Spain.

(thus the image)

3. um. I enjoy horseback riding.

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